PLANTAE / PHANEROGAMAE / ANTHOPHYTA / ASTERALES / LOBELIACEAE / LOBELIEAE / GRAMMATOTHECA / BERGIANA

Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl
NE Indigenous Endemic
Morphological description

Creeping perennial, stems to 60 cm. Leaves linear-oblanceolate, sparsely toothed. Flowers sessile or pedicellate in upper axils, pink or blue. Fruits glabrous. From: Phillipson, PB. 2012. Lobeliaceae. In: J Manning & P Goldblatt (eds), Plants of the Greater Cape Floristic Region 1: The Core Cape flora. Strelitzia 29: 606-613. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. [CC BY]

Caulis ad 3 mm crassus, foliosus; folia graminiformia, 3-5 cm lg. Calycis tubus 10-15 mm longus; corolla 12 lg. From: Wimmer, FE. 1953. Campanulaceae-Lobelioideae II. In: A Engler, L Diels, H Stubbe & K Noack (eds). Pflanzenr. (Engler) (Heft 107): 1-813. Akademie Verlag, Berlin. [All rights reserved] As: Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl var. foliosa E.Wimm.

Inter frutices scandens. Calycis tubus sub anthesi vix pedunculatus, 12 mm longus, folio subbrevior, sepala subulata, scabra, 4 mm longa, primo patentissima, demum reflexa. Corolla 12 mm longa. Capsula recta vel subcurvata, distincte pedunculata, pedunculus 10-15 mm longus, sensim in fructum anguste obconicum 15-20 mm longum ampliatus. From: Wimmer, FE. 1953. Campanulaceae-Lobelioideae II. In: A Engler, L Diels, H Stubbe & K Noack (eds). Pflanzenr. (Engler) (Heft 107): 1-813. Akademie Verlag, Berlin. [All rights reserved] As: Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl var. pedunculata (E.Wimm.) E.Wimm.

Sepala basi connata, reflexa. Capsula subcurvata, obconico-linearis, 5-7 mm tantum longa, folio brevior aut longior. From: Wimmer, FE. 1953. Campanulaceae-Lobelioideae II. In: A Engler, L Diels, H Stubbe & K Noack (eds). Pflanzenr. (Engler) (Heft 107): 1-813. Akademie Verlag, Berlin. [All rights reserved] As: Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl var. ekloniana (C.Presl) E.Wimm.

Diagnostic description

Folia caulina multa, graminiformia; sepala ciliolata. From: Wimmer, FE. 1953. Campanulaceae-Lobelioideae II. In: A Engler, L Diels, H Stubbe & K Noack (eds). Pflanzenr. (Engler) (Heft 107): 1-813. Akademie Verlag, Berlin. [All rights reserved] As: Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl var. foliosa E.Wimm.

Calycis lobi reflexi, basi connati. From: Wimmer, FE. 1953. Campanulaceae-Lobelioideae II. In: A Engler, L Diels, H Stubbe & K Noack (eds). Pflanzenr. (Engler) (Heft 107): 1-813. Akademie Verlag, Berlin. [All rights reserved] As: Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl var. ekloniana (C.Presl) E.Wimm.

Capsula distincte pedunculata. From: Wimmer, FE. 1953. Campanulaceae-Lobelioideae II. In: A Engler, L Diels, H Stubbe & K Noack (eds). Pflanzenr. (Engler) (Heft 107): 1-813. Akademie Verlag, Berlin. [All rights reserved] As: Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl var. pedunculata (E.Wimm.) E.Wimm.

Habitat

Marshy flats. From: Phillipson, PB. 2012. Lobeliaceae. In: J Manning & P Goldblatt (eds), Plants of the Greater Cape Floristic Region 1: The Core Cape flora. Strelitzia 29: 606-613. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. [CC BY]

Distribution

Bain's Kloof to KwaZulu-Natal. From: Phillipson, PB. 2012. Lobeliaceae. In: J Manning & P Goldblatt (eds), Plants of the Greater Cape Floristic Region 1: The Core Cape flora. Strelitzia 29: 606-613. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria. [CC BY]

Flowering time

November

Occurrence records map

This map contains point-based occurrences at different locations

iNaturalist: BODATSA: Data partners records:

Residence status

Occurrence in the Flora of Southern Africa (FSA) countries and South African provinces. Residence status indicates if a taxon is indigenous, endemic, naturalised or invasive in a specific region. This data is based on specimen records and literature

FSA

SA

BOT

NAM

ESW

LES

WC

EC

NC

FS

GA

KZN

LP

MP

NW

Absent

Indigenous

Endemic

Naturalised

Invasive

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Names and Sources

Accepted name
Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl

Published in: Prodr. Monogr. Lobel.: 44 (1836)

Synonym(s)

Lobelia bergiana Cham.

Published in: Linnaea 8: 217 (1833)


Clintonia bergiana (Cham.) G.Don

Published in: Gen. Hist. 3: 718 (1834)


Grammatotheca erinoides (L.) Sond. var. thunbergiana Sond.

Published in: Fl. Cap. [Harvey & Sonder] 3: 532 (1865)


Dortmanna bergiana (Cham.) Kuntze

Published in: Revis. Gen. Pl. 2: 972 (1891)


Grammatotheca dregeana C.Presl

Published in: Prodr. Monogr. Lobel.: 44 (1836)


Grammatotheca eckloniana C.Presl

Published in: Prodr. Monogr. Lobel.: 44 (1836)


Grammatotheca meyeriana C.Presl

Published in: Prodr. Monogr. Lobel.: 44 (1836)


Grammatotheca mundtiana C.Presl

Published in: Prodr. Monogr. Lobel.: 44 (1836)


Lobelia amplexicaulis de Vriese

Published in: Pl. Preiss. [J.G.C.Lehmann] 1(3): 397 (1845)


Lobelia macrocarpa de Vriese

Published in: Pl. Preiss. [J.G.C.Lehmann] 1(3): 396 (1845)


Lobelia macrocarpa de Vriese var. genistoides de Vriese

Published in: Pl. Preiss. [J.G.C.Lehmann] 1(3): 397 (1845)


Lobelia stenotheca F.Muell.

Published in: Fragm. (Mueller) 2(11): 20 (1860)


Grammatotheca erinoides (L.) Sond. var. dregeana (C.Presl) Sond.

Published in: Fl. Cap. [Harvey & Sonder] 3: 532 (1865)


Grammatotheca erinoides (L.) Sond. var. eckloniana (C.Presl) E.Wimm.

Published in: Ann. Naturhist. Mus. Wien 56: 370 (1948)


Grammatotheca erinoides (L.) Sond. var. pedunculata E.Wimm.

Published in: Ann. Naturhist. Mus. Wien 56: 370 (1948)


Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl var. ekloniana (C.Presl) E.Wimm.

Published in: Pflanzenr. [Engler] 4, 276b: 697 (1953)


Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl var. foliosa E.Wimm.

Published in: Pflanzenr. [Engler] 4, 276b: 697 (1953)


Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl var. pedunculata (E.Wimm.) E.Wimm.

Published in: Pflanzenr. [Engler] 4, 276b: 697 (1953)


Classification

KINGDOM Plantae

SUBKINGDOM Phanerogamae

PHYLUM Anthophyta

ORDER Asterales

FAMILY Lobeliaceae

SUBFAMILY Lobelieae

GENUS Grammatotheca

SPECIES bergiana

25 results for Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl

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Specimen records

Barcode: NBG0196320-0 Collector(s) & number: Euston-Brown, DIW, 05 | 2000-1-21

South Africa, Eastern Cape, Kouga Mountain, near Kouga dam. 570 m above sea level.

General notes: Afna surface plateau grassland.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: NH0069856-0 Collector(s) & number: Coleman, TA, 138 | 1965-4-18

South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal, Umbumbulu.

General notes: Flowers scrambling amongst tall vlei grass.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: NH0088025-0 Collector(s) & number: Jordaan, M, 1028 | 1986-12-12

South Africa, Eastern Cape, Umtentu River, north banks. ± 5Km inland, outside reserve.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: NH0085353-0 Collector(s) & number: Abbott, ATD, 2998 | 1986-2-16

South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal, Umtamvuna Nature Reserve, post outpost.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: NBG1569673-0 Collector(s) & number: Knox, EB, 4690 | 2001-8-16

South Africa, Western Cape, W. Cape Province, Waterval Mountains, lower Tulbagh Waterfall.

General notes: DNA voucher.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: NBG1520203-0 Collector(s) & number: Logie, CG, CR15551 | 2011-11-16

South Africa, Eastern Cape, Honeyville. North of Humansdorp on the west side of the Humansdorp/Andrieskraal road. Entered at the first gate on the west side, walked southwards parallel to road to quarry.

General notes: FOTH 710.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: NH0121384-0 Collector(s) & number: Arkell, J, 211 | 1994-3-1

South Africa, Eastern Cape, Mzamba, Casino, next to Airport Terminal building.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: NH0080051-0 Collector(s) & number: Abbott, A, 1969 | 1984-5-10

South Africa, Eastern Cape, Transkei. Mkambati.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: NH0100011-0 Collector(s) & number: Van Wyk, AE, 7984 | 1986-12-14

South Africa, Eastern Cape, Mkambati Nature Reserve.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: NBG0209004-0 Collector(s) & number: Helme, NA, 4678 | 2007-6-2

South Africa, Western Cape, Skurweberg Pass, NW corner of dam, 3 km W of top of Gydo Pass. 33°14' S; 19°18' E.

General notes: Fynbos biome. Wetland. Moist/damp, sandy soil. Sandstone. Full sun. W aspect. Gentle slope. No biotic effect seen. Herb. Annual. Pale blue, 2 narrow petals above, 3 broader ones below with white base. Flowers present. Plant height to 0.3 m. Uncommon in seasonally damp sands, N of road. Area burnt 2 years before.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: NH0075434-0 Collector(s) & number: Abbott, ATD, 662 | 1982-12-28

South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal, Umtamvuna Nature Reserve, Bulolo.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: NH0079476-0 Collector(s) & number: Schrire, BD, 1724 | 1984-5-10

South Africa, Eastern Cape, Mkambati Nature Reserve, Transkei.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: NH0076636-0 Collector(s) & number: Abbott, ATD, 902 | 1983-3-3

South Africa, KwaZulu-Natal, Umtamvuna Nature Reserve, Swamp.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: PRE0860745-0 Collector(s) & number: Bunney, K, 2 | 2002-1-25

South Africa, Eastern Cape, Pondoland. Mtentu Gorge, 0.8 km from the powerline. Wetland area. Releve 13-46.

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Barcode: PRE0625034-0 Collector(s) & number: Hugo, L, 2530 | 1981-3-12

South Africa, Western Cape, CERES; SKITTERYKLOOF; CAMPING SITE - NORTH EAST OF CERES

Data Resource: BODATSA View record

Observation records

Date: 3/15/2013 12:00:00 AM

Western Cape

Data Resource: iNaturalist View record

Date: 1/17/2021 8:34:00 AM

Eastern Cape, South Africa

Data Resource: iNaturalist View record

Date: 12/25/2021 6:01:42 PM

Western Cape, South Africa

Data Resource: iNaturalist View record

Date: 12/9/2021 7:52:00 AM

Western Cape

Data Resource: iNaturalist View record

Date: 5/3/2018 7:16:00 AM

Western Cape, South Africa

Data Resource: iNaturalist View record

Date: 12/29/2021 4:38:00 PM

Western Cape

Data Resource: iNaturalist View record

Date: 2/24/2019 3:56:00 PM

Eastern Cape, South Africa

Data Resource: iNaturalist View record

Date: 3/15/2014 12:00:00 AM

Eastern Cape, South Africa

Data Resource: iNaturalist View record

Date: 10/10/2019 10:51:00 AM

Eastern Cape, South Africa

Data Resource: iNaturalist View record

Date: 11/28/2021 1:13:00 PM

Eastern Cape

Data Resource: iNaturalist View record

Plant occurence records per dataset

Plant occurence records per year

Occurrence records map

This map contains point-based occurrences at different locations

iNaturalist: BODATSA: Data partners records:

2012

SERIES CHAPTER

Lobeliaceae Phillipson, PB

In: J Manning & P Goldblatt (eds), Plants of the Greater Cape Floristic Region 1: The Core Cape flora. Strelitzia 29: 606-613

South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria

2007

BOOK

World checklist and bibliography of Campanulaceae Lammers, TG

Royal Botanic Gadens, Kew, Surrey

1953

FLORA

Campanulaceae-Lobelioideae II. Wimmer, FE

In: A Engler, L Diels, H Stubbe & K Noack (eds). Das Pflanzenreich (Engler)(Heft 107)1-813

Akademie Verlag, Berlin

No results found for Grammatotheca bergiana (Cham.) C.Presl

Status

Global

Status and criteria

NE

Assessment date

2016-01-14

Assessor(s)

Plantae Coordinator

Distribution

Range

<span class="fontstyle0">Across the southern hemisphere, Southern Right Whales have a circumpolar distribution, present within the South Atlantic, South Pacific and Indian Oceans. Similar to other mysticete species, Southern Right Whales exhibit seasonal migrations southwards in summer to sub-Antarctic waters where they feed predominately on copepods (Tormosov <em>et al.</em> 1998), and northwards in winter (as far as about 20°S) for calving and nursing.<span class="fontstyle0"><br/><span class="fontstyle0"><br/>In summer, Southern Right Whales are commonly located between 40°S and 50°S (Ohsumi and Kasamatsu 1986), however they have been reported as far south as 65°S (Bannister <em>et al.</em> 1999, IWC 2007), and around South Georgia in the southern Atlantic Ocean (Rowntree <em>et al.</em> 2001). These sightings from the Antarctic to the sub-Antarctic (or grounds associated with sub-Antarctic or subtropical convergence zone), do not necessarily signify a range expansion but rather, new information derived from satellite tagging.<span class="fontstyle0"><br/><span class="fontstyle0"><br/>During winter months the species moves northwards towards coastlines of continents and islands, mainly for calving. Nursery grounds have been identified close to the shore off the southern regions of Australia and New Zealand, especially the Auckland and Campbell Islands, as well as off the east coast of South America and around southern Africa (Richards 2009). To a lesser extent, they have also been documented off the coasts of Chile, Peru, Tristan da Cunha, and the east coast of Madagascar (IWC 2001, Rosenbaum <em>et al.</em> 2001).<span class="fontstyle0"><br/><span class="fontstyle0"><br/>Within the assessment region, this species had a historical distribution up to southern Angola. Historically there were three winter concentrations, namely Walvis Bay in present day Namibia, the Cape of Good Hope in the west, and up to Delagoa Bay on the east coast of South Africa (Richards 2009). Present summer distribution in southern African waters encompasses 35°S to 60°S. In winter, females with calves are concentrated on the southern African coastal calving ground from 18°30’E to 23°50’E (Best 2000). There is a recognized core area for breeding populations between Saint Sebastian Bay and Pearly Beach near Hermanus, (Elwen and Best 2004a, 2004b, 2004c). Further core areas occur throughout the Benguela (at low frequencies during autumn and winter) (Barendse and Best 2014). The main behaviours recorded for whales along the west coast, up to St Helena Bay, is for socialising during spring and feeding during summer (Barendse and Best 2014). However, it is still not known where the majority of males and females without calves overwinter.<span class="fontstyle0"><br/><span class="fontstyle0"><br/>Population increases of the residual population are leading to repopulation of historical habitat, for example into Namibia and Mozambique. Photo-identification and genetic data are needed to determine whether the whales sighted off Mozambique are part of the South African population or the remains of the historic Indian Ocean population (IWC 2013). Also, shore-based observation along the South African west coast suggests that there are animals moving from a northern area southwards, but research coverage north of St Helena Bay is nearly nonexistent (Barendse and Best 2014).&#160;<span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><br/><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><span class="fontstyle0"><br/>Additionally Southern Right Whales have been seen sporadically at sub-Antarctic Marion Island, a South African territory (Postma <em>et al.</em> 2011), which is part of the Prince Edward Islands Marine Protected Area (MPA), and movement has been recorded between South Africa and Marion Island (Best and Peters 2011).</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>

Habitat and ecology

Major system

Marine

Major habitats

<span class="fontstyle0">Most research on this species has been conducted on the three major breeding populations off South America, Australia and South Africa. In winter, Southern Right Whales are often seen in cow/calf pairs or small groups within sheltered bays of the Western Cape, and are frequently observed performing spectacular aerial displays.<span class="fontstyle0"><br/><span class="fontstyle0"><br/>Tormosov <em>et al.</em> (1998) reported that north of 40°S, this species is known to feed mostly on copepods, while further south (beyond 50°S), their diet consists mostly of euphausiids, and between these latitudes their diet is made up of a mixture of the two. The proximity of the Benguela upwelling system and associated feeding opportunities during summer is somewhat unique in South Africa, and there is documented movement between the south and west coasts (Barendse and Best 2014). There are also some movements of individuals&#160; <span class="fontstyle0">recorded between South Africa and Namibia (Roux <em>et al.</em> 2011), and it is likely that maternally directed site fidelity to migratory routes, feeding and breeding sites is a determining factor.<span class="fontstyle0"><br/><span class="fontstyle0"><br/>Females usually give birth at intervals of three years. However, this period may lengthen to five years during poorer feeding conditions (Leaper <em>et al.</em> 2006). Following a gestation period of 12–13 months, calves are born between June and October, peaking in August (Best 1994). More recent work using molecular and isotopic analyses has indicated cultural (maternal) transferred fidelity to nursery grounds (Valenzuela <em>et al.</em> 2009), although there have been documented movements between different breeding populations (Pirzl <em>et al.</em> 2009).<span class="fontstyle0"><br/><span class="fontstyle0"><br/><span class="fontstyle2"><strong>Ecosystem and cultural services:</strong> <span class="fontstyle0">Marine mammals integrate and reflect ecological variation across large spatial and long temporal scales, and therefore they are prime sentinels of marine ecosystem change; migratory mysticete whales may be used to investigate broad scale shifts in ecosystems (Moore 2008).&#160;<br/><span class="fontstyle0"><br/>The Southern Right Whale is a definite flagship species for conservation and nature-based tourism in South Africa, for example, it is the subject of the Hermanus Whale Festival, and the motivation for the Whale Trail in De Hoop Nature Reserve. </span></span></span></span></span>

Threats

Right Whales were specifically targeted by commercial southern hemisphere whaling since its commencement in the 17th century, and during the 18th and 19th centuries exploitation of these species by American and European whaling increased substantially. There is a great deal of uncertainty over the exact number of animals killed during this period, however, between 1770 and 1900 there is a conservative estimate of 150,000 individuals killed globally, and between 48,000 and 60,000 of these were believed to have been killed during the 1930s alone. At the beginning of the 20th century (the start of the modern whaling era), Southern Right Whales were rare, thus only 1,600 were caught before they were formally protected in 1935.
 
The southern hemisphere population (Southern Right Whales) was estimated at 55,000–70,000 individuals in 1770, but is believed to have dropped to only 300 by the 1920s. From American import records of whale oil and baleen, Best (1987) estimated that nearly 60,000 Southern Right Whales were caught by American commercial whalers during the 19th century. Following their protection in 1935, it is presumed that their numbers increased until the 1960s when 3,212 individuals were illegally hunted by Soviet fleets between 1951 and 1970 (Tormosov et al. 1998), thus delaying their recovery.

Currently the species is subjected to entanglement (mostly in fishing gear, including shark nets, trap fisheries) and ship strikes, but neither have any measureable impact on the rate of recovery. Ranked threats are:
  1. Entanglement increasing with population but not accelerating. There is need to monitor the experimental octopus longline pot fishery on the south coast where entanglements of Bryde’s whales have been recorded recently. Humpback and Southern Right Whales are the two large whale species most likely be become entangled in nets (Meÿer et al. 2011). Reported incidents of Southern Right Whale entanglement in nets other than shark nets increased between 1990 and 2009; however, this was accounted for by the 7% annual increase in population abundance. Although entanglement mortality does not appear to be hindering population growth, increased population numbers are expected to result in heightened levels of anthropogenic interaction, thus requiring mitigation improvements.
  2. The severity of small boat ship strikes is increasing, especially with calves in nursery grounds. Ship strikes from fishing boats is also likely to be increasing (Best et al. 2011). Areas of industrial development such as Saldanha Bay, where whales utilise the bay and harbour approaches, may be potential additional ship strike areas (Barendse and Best 2014).
  3. Climate change may also affect this species. Observed correlations between breeding success off Argentina and sea surface temperature anomalies at South Georgia suggest that as Southern Ocean feeding grounds warm up, the average calving rate of Southern Right Whales can be expected to decline (Leaper et al. 2006).
  4. An additional emerging threat to this species as a result of climate change includes heightened disease transmission and changes in energy expenditure (thus affecting lactation and calf rearing).
  5. Anthropogenic noise is a potential minor manageable threat. Seismic surveys may be increasing and of concern in areas like De Hoop MPA where prospecting rights are allocated near nursery areas.
  6. An emerging and potentially severe threat in South African and Namibian waters is allocation of rights for bulk sediment mining for benthic phosphates (Benkenstein 2014). The disturbance of sediments and extraction of minerals could potentially impact on the dynamics of nutrient cycling and productivity in yet unknown ways. 
  7. Current levels of ecotourism are sustainable but increases may cause disturbance to calves at nursery sites.
  8. On Argentina’s important Península Valdés calving ground, parasitism by Kelp Gulls Larus dominicanus, which gouge skin and blubber from the whales’ backs, has been increasing rapidly in recent years and may eventually drive the whales elsewhere (Rowntree et al. 1998). These gull attacks may play a contributing factor in the spike in mortality of Southern Right Whale calves since 2003 (IWC 2013). This appears to be a learned behaviour that has spread through the gull population, and which is likely exacerbated by the elevated gull populations provisioned by the prevalence of uncovered disposal sites for fishery and other waste. This localised threat is used as a warning to closely monitor other populations.

Population

Population trend

<span class="fontstyle0">The most recent assessment of Southern Right Whale populations was conducted by the IWC in 2011 (IWC 2013). Populations were significantly depleted by commercial whaling; however, since then three breeding populations off Australia, South Africa and the east coast of South America have all shown strong recovery.&#160;<br/><br/><span class="fontstyle0">Although some illegal Soviet whaling during the 1960s impeded population recovery, subsequently populations appear to have increased. Based on a 7.5% annual increase in 1997, the estimated global population abundance was 7,500 individuals, including 1,600 mature females (659 from South African waters) (IWC 2001). However, the global population estimated in 1997 was likely still less than 10% of historic levels (IWC 2001).<span class="fontstyle0"><br/><span class="fontstyle0"><br/>Within the assessment region, the southern African coast is considered to be one breeding assemblage of Southern Right Whales. In 2012 the total population that overwinters off the southern African coast was estimated at 5,062 animals, of which 1,321 were thought to be reproducing females (Brandão <span class="fontstyle2"><em>et al.</em> <span class="fontstyle0">2013). The annual population growth rate within the assessment region is estimated at 6.6% (Brandão <span class="fontstyle2"><em>et al.</em> <span class="fontstyle0">2013). The estimated generation length is 29 years (Taylor <em>et al.</em> 2007). </span></span></span></span>

Bibliography

JOURNAL ARTICLE
Clausnitzer, V. and Dijkstra, K.–D.B. in prep. The dragonflies of Eastern Africa. An identification key

JOURNAL ARTICLE
Longfield, C. 1959. The Odonata of North Angola. Part II. Publicações Culturais Companhia de Diamantes de Angola. 45:13–42

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